Hisitōlia ʻo e Siasí
Polokalama ʻOku Fokotuʻutuʻu Maʻá e Tokotaha Ako ʻInitiá

Polokalama ʻOku Fokotuʻutuʻu Maʻá e Tokotaha Ako ʻInitiá

Lolotonga e konga hono ua ʻo e senituli 20, naʻe fakafuofua ki he fānau Tuʻufonua ʻAmelika ʻe toko nimamano ne kau ʻi he Polokalama ʻOku Fokotuʻutuʻu Maʻá e Tokotaha Ako ʻInitiá (Indian Student Placement Program–ISPP), ko ha ngāue naʻe fakapaʻanga ʻe he Siasí ʻa ia naʻe tauhi ai ʻe he kāingalotu ʻo e Siasí ha fānau ako ʻInitia lolotonga ʻa e taʻu fakaakó.1 Ki he fānau Tuʻufonuá, naʻe maʻu ʻi he polokalamá ha ngaahi faingamālie fakaako mo fakalaumālie ʻo tānaki atu ki he meʻa ne maʻu ʻi he ngaahi ʻēlia ne tuku mavahe ke nau nofo aí. Naʻe fakaʻatā ʻe he polokalamá ʻa e ngaahi fāmili ne nau tauhi e fānau akó, ʻa ia ne meimei ko ha Kāingalotu papālangi, ke fakafeohi mo tokoniʻi e Kau ʻInitia ʻAmeliká, ʻa ia ne mahino kiate kinautolu he taimi ko iá ko ha hako ʻo e kau Leimana ʻi he Tohi ʻa Molomoná.

Naʻe faʻu ʻa e ISPP ko ha ola ʻo e Tau Lahi Hono II ʻa Māmaní, ʻa ia ne mamata ai ha Kau ʻInitia ʻAmelika tokolahi ki he anga fakafonua foʻoú pea fakalotoʻi ai ha kau taki mo e mātuʻa Tuʻufonua tokolahi ki he mahuʻinga ʻo e ako fakaʻIulope-ʻAmeliká. ʻI he taʻu 1946, naʻe fakafuofua ki he vahe ua ʻe tolu ʻo e kakai Navahoó (Tiné)—ʻa ia ne haʻu ha konga tokolahi mei ai ʻa kinautolu ne kau ki he ISPP—kuo nau maʻu ha tuʻunga fakaako lelei. Naʻe siʻisiʻi hono tokoniʻi fakapaʻanga ʻa e ngaahi ako ʻInitia ʻa e Puleʻangá pea faʻa mamaʻo ʻa e feituʻu ne tuʻu aí mei he fānau Tuʻufonuá. Hili ʻa e taú, naʻe fekumi ʻa e mātuʻá mo e kau taki fakaʻofisiale ʻo e ngaahi haʻá ki ha ngaahi founga ke fakasiʻisiʻi ai ʻa e masivesiva ʻi honau koló, pea nau tali ai ha ngaahi faingamālie fakaako foʻou maʻá e toʻutangata kei tupu haké.2 ʻI he taʻu 1947, naʻe kole ai pea maʻu ha ngofua ʻa Heleni Sione, ko ha toʻu tupu Navahō ngāue ʻi Lisifili, ʻIutā, ke nofo mo ha fāmili Siasi fakalotofonua mo ʻalu ai ki he akó.3 Naʻe hoko e aʻusia ʻa Sioné ko ha kamataʻanga ia ki he toʻu tupu ʻInitia kehe ʻa ia ne ʻave ke nofo mo e ngaahi fāmili Siasi ʻi he ngaahi taʻu hono hokó. ʻI hono fakahoa ki he ngaahi ako nofomaʻu ʻInitia ʻa e puleʻangá, ʻa ia naʻe nofo ai he taimi ʻe niʻihi ʻa e fānau Tuʻufonuá ʻi ha ʻū fale ako motuʻa, naʻe hoko ʻa e founga ʻa e Siasí ko ha “polokalama mavahe atu,” ʻa ia ne nofo ai ʻa e fānau Tuʻufonuá mo ha ngaahi fāmili tauhi, ʻalu ki he ako fakalotofonuá, pea nau feangai foki mo e kolo naʻa nau ʻi aí.4

Naʻe hoko ʻa e ʻAposetolo ko Sipenisā W. Kimipoló ko e taki ke ne kamataʻi e ngāue ʻa e Siasí ʻi he senituli 20 ke fakaului ʻa e kakai Tuʻufonuá mo foaki ha tokoni fakaako.5 ʻI heʻene tatakí, naʻe hoko ai e ISPP ko ha polokalama fakaʻofisiale ʻa e Siasí ʻi he taʻu 1954. Naʻe fakaʻaiʻai ʻe he kau faifekaú mo e kau taki fakalotofonua ʻa e Siasí ʻa e toʻu tupu Tuʻufonuá ke nau kau mai, kae tānaki mai ʻe he kau taki lakanga fakataulaʻeikí ʻa e ngaahi fāmili tauhí. Naʻe fakalele ʻa e ISPP ʻi he malumalu ʻo e laiseni ʻa e potungāue ki he ngaahi meʻa fakasōsiale ʻa e Fineʻofá. Naʻe fakapapauʻi ʻe he kau ngāué ko e kakai Tuʻufonua ne tohi kole maí naʻa nau taʻu valu pe lahi ange, moʻui lelei, pea lava ʻo kau ʻi he akó, pea kuo nau papitaiso ko ha mēmipa ʻo e Siasí. Naʻe fakapapauʻi foki ʻe he kau ngāué ʻoku feau ʻe he ngaahi fāmili tauhí ʻa e fiemaʻu fakalao ke hoko ko ha mātuʻa ohí pea fakapapauʻi ko ha kāingalotu lelei kinautolu ʻo e Siasí, ʻaki ʻenau ngāue mo e kau taki lakanga fakataulaʻeiki fakalotofonuá.6 Neongo ko e tokolahi ʻo kinautolu ne fuofua kau maí ko e fānau Navahō pea naʻe tuku kinautolu ʻi ha ngaahi ʻapi ʻi ʻIutā, ka ʻi he tupulaki ʻa e polokalamá ʻi he 1960 tupú, naʻe tokolahi ha fānau ako ʻInitia ʻAmelika mei ha ngaahi haʻa kehekehe ʻi he ʻIunaiteti Siteití mo Kānata naʻe vahe ki ha ngaahi ʻapi ʻa e kāingalotu ʻo e Siasí ʻi he Tokelau-Hihifo ʻo ʻAmeliká.7 Makehe mei he ʻalu ki he akó, naʻe faʻa kau ʻa kinautolu naʻe kau maí ki ha ngaahi ʻekitivitī makehe, ʻekitivitī fakalotu, mo e ngaahi ʻekitivitī fakasōsiale kehe naʻe fakataumuʻa ke fakatupulaki ʻenau aʻusia ʻi he polokalamá. Ke poupou ki he ISPP, naʻe fakalele ʻe he Siasí ʻa e Polokalama Semineli Faka-ʻInitiá ki he ngaahi ako fakalotú.8

Naʻe ʻi ai ha ngaahi ola kehekehe ʻi he ISPP. Fakatatau ki ha fakatotolo ʻi he 1981, naʻe tupulaki ha niʻihi tokolahi, ʻosi mei he ako māʻolungá pea hū ki he ʻunivēsití ʻi ha ngaahi tuʻunga māʻolunga ange ʻi he kakai Tuʻufonua ne ʻikai kau ʻi he polokalamá, koeʻuhí ko e ʻikai ha ngaahi faingamālie fakaako leleí. Naʻe tokolahi ha kau ʻosi mei he ISPP naʻa nau ako ʻi he ʻUnivēsiti Pilikihami ʻIongí, ʻa ia naʻá ne fakalele ha taha ʻo e ngaahi polokalama ako lahi taha ki he kau ʻInitia ʻAmeliká ʻi he ʻIunaiteti Siteití ʻi he 1970 tupú. Hili e ʻosi mei he akó, ne tokolahi ʻa e niʻihi ne kau maí ne hokohoko atu ʻenau moʻui mateaki ʻi he Siasí, kau ʻi honau haʻofanga lotú, totongi vahehongofulu, tauhi e Lea ʻo e Potó, pea mali ʻi he temipalé.9 Neongo ia, ka ko e toenga ʻo kinautolu ne kau maí ne faingataʻa ʻenau feinga ke fakafenāpasi mo e ngaahi fakakaukau ʻa e ISPP ki he tuʻunga mo e feohi fakamatakalí. Neongo naʻe poupouʻi ʻe he polokalamá e niʻihi ne kau maí ke fetuʻutaki maʻu pē mo honau ngaahi fāmilí pea foki ki ʻapi he mālōlō he faʻahitaʻu māfaná, ka naʻe fakakaukau ha tokolahi naʻe hoko hono fakaʻatā ʻe he polokalamá ʻa e ngaahi tuʻunga moʻui faka-Uēsité ke fakamavaheʻi ai kinautolu mei honau fāmilí mo honau anga fakafonua Tuʻufonuá.10

Naʻe aʻu e tokolahi ʻo kinautolu ne lesisita ki he ISPP ki he toko nimaafe ʻi he taʻu 1970, hili iá naʻe hoko ha ngaahi meʻa kehekehe ke ne holoki māmālie ai e tokolahi ne kau maí. Naʻe kamata fakafepakiʻi ʻa e ISPP mei tuʻa ʻe he kakai ne nau poupouʻi lahi ʻa e ngaahi meʻa tuʻufonuá, ʻo pehē ko ha founga ia te ne liliu ʻa e anga fakafonuá. Naʻe kamata ke fakaleleiʻi mo fokotuʻutuʻu foʻou ʻe he Siasí mei loto ʻene ngaahi polokalamá, ʻa ia ne kau ai hono fakangatangata mo fakasiʻisiʻi ʻa e ISPP. Naʻe hoko ʻeni ke tupu ai ha fakafepaki ʻi he kāingalotu ʻo e Siasí.11 Ne faifai pē pea hoko ʻa e ngaahi fakangatangata fakalaó mo fakapaʻangá ke ʻikai toe lava ai ha hoko atu ʻa e polokalamá. Naʻe hoko ʻa e ngaahi fakangatangata ko ʻení mo e lahi e ngaahi fakalakalaka fakaako ʻi he ngaahi feituʻu ne tuku mavahe ke nofo ai [ʻa e kau ʻInitia ʻAmeliká] ke aofangatuku ai ʻa e kau taki ʻo e Siasí ke taʻofi ʻa e polokalamá. Ko e tokotaha fakamuimuitaha ke kau he ISPP ne ʻosi ia mei he ako māʻolungá ʻi he taʻu 2000.

Ngaahi Tefito Fekauʻakí: Native Americans [Kakai Tuʻufonua ʻo ʻAmeliká], Tuʻunga ʻo e Kau Leimaná, Spencer W. Kimball [Sipenisā W. Kimipolo]

  1. ʻOku hoko ʻa e ʻikai maʻopoʻopo ʻa e ʻū lekooti fakahisitōlia ʻa e ISPP ke ʻikai malava ai ke ʻilo e tokolahi pau ʻo e niʻihi ne kau aí. Naʻe fakafuofua ʻe Clarence R. Bishop, ko ha taha ngāue fuoloa pea naʻe hoko kimui ange ko ha talēkita ʻo e polokalamá, ko e 2002 kuo kau mai ki he polokalamá ha fānau ako ʻe toko nimamano; vakai, Dale L. Shumway mo Margene Shumway, eds., The Blossoming: Dramatic Accounts of the Lives of Native Americans in the Foster Care Program of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (2002), x; Matthew Garrett, Making Lamanites: Mormons, Native Americans, and the Indian Student Placement Program, 1947–2000 (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 2016), 251, note 1.

  2. Donald L. Fixico, The Urban Indian Experience in America (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2000); Farina King, The Earth Memory Compass: Diné Landscapes and Education in the Twentieth Century (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2018), 93–110; Hildegard Thompson, The Navajos’ Long Walk for Education: A History of Navajo Education (Tsaile, Navajo Nation, Arizona: Navajo Community College Press, 1975), 74, 78–79.

  3. Helen J. Hall, interview by J. Neil Birch, Oct. 10, 1978, J. Neil Birch Indian Placement Program Oral History Transcripts, Church History Library, Salt Lake City; Thelma S. Buchanan, interview by William G. Hartley, Oct. 12, 1976, 3–12, Church History Library, Salt Lake City; Golden R. Buchanan, Oral Histories, 1974–1975, vol. 2, 3–8, Church History Library, Salt Lake City.

  4. Clarence R. Bishop, “Indian Placement: A History of the Indian Student Placement Program of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints” (master’s thesis, University of Utah, 1967), 29–41. ʻI he ngaahi faʻunga kimuʻa ʻo e “ngaahi polokalama mavahé,” vakai, David Wallace Adams, Education for Extinction: American Indians and the Boarding School Experience, 1875–1928, 2nd ed. (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2020), 174–83.

  5. Edward L. Kimball, Lengthen Your Stride: The Presidency of Spencer W. Kimball (Salt Lake City: Deseret Book, 2005), 288–95. Ki ha fakamatala lahi ange ki he ngāue ʻa e Siasí ki he fakaului ʻo e Kau ʻAmelika Tuʻufonuá, vakai ki he Ngaahi Tefito: Kau ʻInitia Kulá, Kau ‘Initia Nofo Hopoate mo e Ngāue Fakasevāniti ʻi ha Vahaʻataimi Paú, Tuʻunga ʻo e Kau Leimaná.

  6. Bishop, “Indian Placement,” 42–75; Garrett, Making Lamanites, 58–90, 93.

  7. Garrett, Making Lamanites, 83–84; Jessie L. Embry, “Indian Placement Program Host Families: A Mission to the Lamanites,” Journal of Mormon History, vol. 40, no. 2 (Spring 2014), 235–76.

  8. Garrett, Making Lamanites, 85–86, 91–127; Scott C. Esplin, “‘You Can Make Your Own Bright Future, Tom Trails’: Evaluating the Impact of the LDS Indian Seminary Program,” Journal of Mormon History, vol. 42, no. 4 (Oct. 2016), 172–207.

  9. Naʻe ʻilo ʻi ha fakatotolo he taʻu 1981, ko e peseti ʻe 82 ʻo e fānau ako ne kau ʻi he ISPP ʻi ha taʻu ʻe taha pe lahi angé ne nau ʻosi mei he ako māʻolungá, ʻoku laka hake ia ʻi he peseti ʻe 20 mei honau toʻú. Ko ha vahe ua ʻe tolu ʻo e niʻihi ne kau mai ki he ISPP ne nau mavahe mei he polokalamá kimuʻa ia ʻoku teʻeki ke nau ʻosi mei he akó koeʻuhí ko ha ngaahi ʻuhinga kehekehe. Bruce A. Chadwick and Stan L. Albrecht, “Mormons and Indians: Beliefs, Policies, Programs, and Practices,” ʻi he Marie Cornwall and others, eds., Contemporary Mormonism: Social Science Perspectives (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1994), 295–309; Armand L. Mauss, All Abraham’s Children: Changing Mormon Perceptions of Race and Lineage (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2003), 82–92.

  10. Elise Boxer, “‘The Lamanites Shall Blossom as the Rose’: The Indian Student Placement Program, Mormon Whiteness, and Indigenous Identity,” Journal of Mormon History, vol. 41, no. 4 (Oct. 2015), 132–76; Garrett, Making Lamanites, 169–234; Carolyn Rittenhouse, “Sacred Journey: Restoring My Plains Indians Tipi,” in Jaqueline Fear-Segal and Susan D. Rose, eds., Carlisle Indian Industrial School: Indigenous Histories, Memories, and Reclamations (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2018), 258–73.

  11. Garrett, Making Lamanites, 169–234. Naʻe tuʻusi mei he Siasí ʻa e tokotaha Navahō ko George P. Lee, ko ha taha ISPP ʻiloa ne ʻosi mei he akó pea maʻu haʻane mataʻitohi toketā ʻi he malaʻe fakafaiakó mei BYU pea naʻá ne hoko ko ha palesiteni fakamisiona mo ha mēmipa ʻo e Kau Fitungofulú, ʻi he 1989 koeʻuhí ko ʻene fakaangaʻi fakahāhā ʻa e hōloa ko ia ʻa e ISPP. Vakai, “Elder George Patrick Lee of the First Quorum of the Seventy,” Ensign, Nov. 1975, 136–37.